This illustration shows lithium atoms (red) adhered to a graphene lattice that will produce electricity when bent, squeezed or twisted. Conversely, the graphene will deform when an electric field is applied, opening new possibilities in nanotechnology. Illustration: Mitchell Ong, Stanford School of Engineering Bulk piezoelectric materials are already used for atomically precise nanopositioning to position the tips of scanning probe microscopes. Would there be any advantages to engineered control of piezoelectrical properties in a two-dimensional material? Currently piezoelectric properties of materials cannot be engineered—it is a property only available in certain 3D crystals. Now calculations have demonstrated that graphene can be made piezoelectric by adsorbing atoms on one surface. A hat tip to Physorg.com for reprinting this Stanford University news release written by Andrew Myers “ Straintronics: Engineers create piezoelectric graphene “: Graphene is a wonder material. It is a one-hundred-times-better conductor of electricity than silicon. It is stronger than diamond. And, at just one atom thick, it is so thin as to be essentially a two-dimensional material. Such promising physics have made graphene the most studied substance of the last decade, particularly in nanotechnology. In 2010, the researchers who first isolated it shared the Nobel Prize. Yet, while graphene is many things, it is not piezoelectric. Piezoelectricity is the property of some materials to produce electric charge when bent, squeezed or twisted. Perhaps more importantly, piezoelectricity is reversible. When an electric field is applied, piezoelectric materials change shape, yielding a remarkable level of engineering control. Piezoelectrics have found application in countless devices from watches, radios and ultrasound to the push-button starters on propane grills, but these uses all require relatively large, three-dimensional quantities of piezoelectric materials. Now, in a paper published in the journal ACS Nano [ abstract ], two materials engineers at Stanford have described how they have engineered piezoelectrics into graphene, extending for the first time such fine physical control to the nanoscale. “The physical deformations we can create are directly proportional to the electrical field applied. This represents a fundamentally new way to control electronics at the nanoscale,” said Evan Reed, head of the Materials Computation and Theory Group at Stanford and senior author of the study. This phenomenon brings new dimension to the concept of ‘straintronics,’ he said, because of the way the electrical field strains—or deforms—the lattice of carbon, causing it to change shape in predictable ways. “Piezoelectric graphene could provide an unparalleled degree of electrical, optical or mechanical control for applications ranging from touchscreens to nanoscale transistors,” said Mitchell Ong, a post-doctoral scholar in Reed’s lab and first author of the paper. Using a sophisticated modeling application running on high-performance supercomputers, the engineers simulated the deposition of atoms on one side of a graphene lattice — a process known as doping — and measured the piezoelectric effect. They modeled graphene doped with lithium, hydrogen, potassium and fluorine, as well as combinations of hydrogen and fluorine and lithium and fluorine on either side of the lattice. Doping just one side of the graphene, or doping both sides with different atoms, is key to the process as it breaks graphene’s perfect physical symmetry, which otherwise cancels the piezoelectric effect. The results surprised both engineers. “We thought the piezoelectric effect would be present, but relatively small. Yet, we were able to achieve piezoelectric levels comparable to traditional three-dimensional materials,” said Reed. “It was pretty significant.” The researchers were further able to fine tune the effect by pattern doping the graphene—selectively placing atoms in specific sections and not others. “We call it designer piezoelectricity because it allows us to strategically control where, when and how much the graphene is deformed by an applied electrical field with promising implications for engineering,” said Ong. While the results in creating piezoelectric graphene are encouraging, the researchers believe that their technique might further be used to engineer piezoelectricity in nanotubes and other nanomaterials with applications ranging from electronics, photonics, and energy harvesting to chemical sensing and high-frequency acoustics. “We’re already looking at new piezoelectric devices based on other 2D and low-dimensional materials, hoping they might open new and dramatic possibilities in nanotechnology,” said Reed. Could piezoelectric graphene be used with, for example, DNA origami scaffolding to position molecular tools to execute programmed actions? To hear the researchers discussing their work and plans, including possible application to nanomechanical systems, an ACS Nano podcast is available. —James Lewis, PhD
Posts Tagged ‘Researchers’
Will piezoelectric graphene provide options for nanoscale manipulation?
Posted in Nanotechnology 
Tags: dna, Electrical, Engineers, Journal, Materials, Mems, molecular nanotechnology, Researchers, the-graphene 
Comments OffRNA CAD tool for synthetic biology may facilitate RNA nanotechnology
New computer assisted design (CAD) tools for engineering RNA components have been developed for the growing field of synthetic biology. The knowledge of RNA folding and RNA catalytic and binding functions incorporated into these CAD tools may also prove useful for RNA nanotechnology. A hat tip to Science Daily for reprinting this news release from the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) “ CAD for RNA “: The computer assisted design (CAD) tools that made it possible to fabricate integrated circuits with millions of transistors may soon be coming to the biological sciences. Researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)’s Joint BioEnergy Institute (JBEI) have developed CAD-type models and simulations for RNA molecules that make it possible to engineer biological components or “RNA devices” for controlling genetic expression in microbes. This holds enormous potential for microbial-based sustainable production of advanced biofuels, biodegradable plastics, therapeutic drugs and a host of other goods now derived from petrochemicals. “Because biological systems exhibit functional complexity at multiple scales, a big question has been whether effective design tools can be created to increase the sizes and complexities of the microbial systems we engineer to meet specific needs,” says Jay Keasling, director of JBEI and a world authority on synthetic biology and metabolic engineering. “Our work establishes a foundation for developing CAD platforms to engineer complex RNA-based control systems that can process cellular information and program the expression of very large numbers of genes. Perhaps even more importantly, we have provided a framework for studying RNA functions and demonstrated the potential of using biochemical and biophysical modeling to develop rigorous design-driven engineering strategies for biology.” … The ressearch was published in Science [ abstract ]. To test their CAD tools, the researchers engineered 28 molecular devices to regulate metabolic pathways in bacteria via RNA-controlled gene expression, and verified that expected levels of expression were obtained. From the abstract, “… More broadly, we provide a framework for studying RNA functions and illustrate the potential for the use of biochemical and biophysical modeling to develop biological design methods.” The news release continues: … As with other engineering disciplines, CAD tools for simulating and designing global functions based upon local component behaviors are essential for constructing complex biological devices and systems. However, until this work, CAD-type models and simulation tools for biology have been very limited. Identifying the relevant design parameters and defining the domains over which expected component behaviors are exerted have been key steps in the development of CAD tools for other engineering disciplines,” says Carothers, a bioengineer and lead author of the Science paper who is a member of Keasling’s research groups with both JBEI and the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences. “We’ve applied generalizable engineering strategies for managing functional complexity to develop CAD-type simulation and modeling tools for designing RNA-based genetic control systems. Ultimately we’d like to develop CAD platforms for synthetic biology that rival the tools found in more established engineering disciplines, and we see this work as an important technical and conceptual step in that direction.” … RNA nanotechnology has a unique set of advantages as a pathway technology toward atomically precise productive nanosystems that reflect its central role in biological systems. Unlike the simple Watson-Crick base-pair molecular recognition code that underlies DNA nanotechnology, the more complex rules of base-pairing involved in RNA folding allow RNA to fold into compact complex three-dimensional shapes. These shapes are somewhat reminiscent of the complex folds of protein structures, yet the folding rules are considerably simpler than those of proteins. These RNA CAD tools may be an important step toward powerful design tools for folded polymer paths toward molecular machine systems.
Posted in Nanotechnology Tags: cad, Development, dna, Engineering, Lawrence, molecular nanotechnology, Nanobiotechnology, Nanotechnology, Potential, productive nanosystems, Research, Researchers, rival-the-tools, rna, TOOLS Comments OffPainting Solar Cells With Nanoparticle Paste
. Researchers at Notre Dame have developed a solar cell that is remarkably easy to assemble because the middle layer can be painted onto a clear electrode. First, they mix t-butanol, water, cadmium sulfide and titanium dioxide for 30 minutes. Next, they mask off a clear electrode with office tape. Once the tape is in place, they spread the mixture onto the electode and then anneal it with a heat gun. Finally, they sandwich an electrolyte solution between the new electrode and a graphene composite electrode. And then, it’s time for testing under a beam of artificial light. Read More Read More Paper
Posted in Nanotechnology Tags: between-the-new, clear-electrode, middle, mixture, notre-dame, once-the-tape, painted-onto, remarkably-easy, Researchers, testing-under, the-mixture Comments OffTwelve Atom Storage Device
. Researchers at I.B.M. have stored and retrieved binary data from an array of just 12 atoms, pushing the boundaries of the magnetic storage of information to the edge of what is possible. The findings could help lead to a new class of nanomaterials for a generation of memory chips and disk drives that will not only have greater capabilities than the current silicon-based computers but will consume significantly less power. And they may offer a new direction for research in quantum computing. Read More Paper
Posted in Nanotechnology Tags: binary-data, Boundaries, Current, Edge, help-lead, Magnetic, memory-chips, new-class, new-direction, Researchers, the-magnetic, will-consume Comments OffDNA nanosensors profile gene activity to reveal state of cells
A clever use of a simple DNA nanodevice demonstrates how relatively simple present day nanotech can contribute substantially to solving very important problems in biotechnology and medicine. A University of California – Santa Barbara press release available on EurekAlert! explains how. From “ Nanosensors made from DNA may light path to new cancer tests and drugs “: Sensors made from custom DNA molecules could be used to personalize cancer treatments and monitor the quality of stem cells, according to an international team of researchers led by scientists at UC Santa Barbara and the University of Rome Tor Vergata. The new nanosensors can quickly detect a broad class of proteins called transcription factors, which serve as the master control switches of life. The research is described in an article published in Journal of the American Chemical Society [ abstract — includes diagram of how device works]. “The fate of our cells is controlled by thousands of different proteins, called transcription factors,” said Alexis Vallée-Bélisle, a postdoctoral researcher in UCSB’s Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, who led the study. “The role of these proteins is to read the genome and translate it into instructions for the synthesis of the various molecules that compose and control the cell. Transcription factors act a little bit like the ‘settings’ of our cells, just like the settings on our phones or computers. What our sensors do is read those settings.” When scientists take stem cells and turn them into specialized cells, they do so by changing the levels of a few transcription factors, he explained. This process is called cell reprogramming. “Our sensors monitor transcription factor activities, and could be used to make sure that stem cells have been properly reprogrammed,” said Vallée-Bélisle. “They could also be used to determine which transcription factors are activated or repressed in a patient’s cancer cells, thus enabling physicians to use the right combination of drugs for each patient.” … This international research effort –– organized by senior authors Kevin Plaxco, professor in UCSB’s Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Francesco Ricci, professor at the University of Rome, Tor Vergata –– started when Ricci realized that all of the information necessary to detect transcription factor activities is already encrypted in the human genome, and could be used to build sensors. “Upon activation, these thousands of different transcription factors bind to their own specific target DNA sequence,” said Ricci. “We use these sequences as a starting point to build our new nanosensors.” … Transcription factors function by binding to a short sequence of DNA that regulates the activity of a class of genes, with each factor binding a different DNA sequence. This specific binding was used to turn a small DNA molecule into a specific biosensor. Specifically, the team re-engineered three naturally occurring DNA sequences, each recognizing a different transcription factor, into molecular switches that become fluorescent when they bind to their intended targets. Using these nanometer-scale sensors, the researchers could determine transcription factor activity directly in cellular extracts by simply measuring their fluorescence level. The researchers believe that this strategy will ultimately allow biologists to monitor the activation of thousands of transcription factors, leading to a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying cell division and development. “Alternatively, since these nanosensors work directly in biological samples, we also believe that they could be used to screen and test new drugs that could, for example, inhibit transcription-factor binding activity responsible for the growth of tumor cells,” said Plaxco.
Posted in Nanotechnology Tags: Biochemistry, Bionanotechnology, Cells, dna, future medicine, Mechanisms, molecular nanotechnology, Nano, Nanomedicine, NANOTECH, read-the-genome, Researchers, Society, University Comments OffFour-Wheeled Electric NanoCar
A nanoscale ‘car’ is the latest example of how nanoscale systems designed to imitate functions from the macroscopic world are leading to a new appreciation of the complexity that is needed to actuate motion at the limits of miniaturization. The nanocar was created by researchers from University of Groningen in The Netherlands, the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, and the University of Zurich. The specially designed molecule has four motorized ‘wheels’. By depositing the molecules on a surface and providing them with sufficiently energetic electrons from the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope, the researchers were able to drive some of the molecules in a specific direction, much like a car with four-wheel drive. Previous examples of actuated single-molecule motion have been reported by others, but none with the complex action to continue moving in the same direction across a surface like the system devised, synthesized and operated by the team. In such work, the forces that dominate the macroscopic world around us, such as gravity, are less important than the forces that rule the nanoscale and biological worlds, such as van der Waals and capillary forces. Nevertheless, there are similarities between our everyday world and the nanoscale world: a car must have not only the ability to accelerate, but also brakes and traction; likewise, nanoscale actuated motion depends on balancing applied forces with those that hold structures in place. The researchers solved this problem, as others have, by balancing surface interactions and thermal energy with forces that can be applied through actuation, so that their molecules move only on stimulation, rather than by diffusion. Read More Paper Movie 1 (.mov) Movie 2 (.mov) Movie 3 (.mov) Movie 4 (.mov)
Posted in Nanotechnology Tags: complexity, Forces, hold-structures, like-the-system, macroscopic, Molecules, Nanoscale, nanoscale-world, Researchers, such-as-gravity, Swiss, swiss-federal, Technology Comments OffCarbon nanotube muscles could propel future medical nanorobots (video)
Nanotechnologist Ray Baughman from the University of Texas has been working for several years on artificial muscles made from yarn woven from nanotubes (see this post from 2007). Now, with an international team of collaborators, he has published in Science [ abstract ] a torsional nanotube yarn muscle and demonstrated its use as a mixer for a fluidic chip. This artificial muscle provides far more rotation than seen with previous artificial muscles, and is as flexible as an elephant’s trunk or an octopus’s arm. A video , posted by collaborators at The University of Wollongong in Australia, suggests these new “twisting artificial muscles [could] propel nano-robots one step closer to medical applications.” From the caption: The possibility of a doctor using tiny robots in your body to diagnose and treat medical conditions is one step closer to becoming reality today, with the development of artificial muscles small and strong enough to push the tiny Nanobots along. Although Nanorobots (Nanobots) have received much attention for the potential medical use in the body, such as cancer fighting, drug delivery and parasite removal, one major hurdle in their development has been the issue of how to propel them along in the bloodstream. An international collaborative team led by Dr Javad Foroughi and Prof Geoff Spinks at UOW’s Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, part of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science (ACES), have developed a new twisting artificial muscle that could be used for propelling nanobots. The muscles use very tough and highly flexible yarns of carbon nanotubes (nanoscale cylinders of carbon), which are twist-spun into the required form. When voltage is applied, the yarns rotate up to 600 revolutions per minute, then rotate in reverse when the voltage is changed. Due to their complexity, conventional motors are very difficult to miniaturise, making them unsuitable for use in nanorobotics. The twisting artificial muscles, on the other hand, are simple and inexpensive to construct either in very long, or in millimetre lengths. … Further details are available on EurekAlert from the University of Texas at Dallas “ Carbon nanotube muscles generate giant twist for novel motors “: Twist per muscle length is over a thousand times higher than for previous artificial muscles and the muscle diameter is ten times smaller than a human hair New artificial muscles that twist like the trunk of an elephant, but provide a thousand times higher rotation per length, were announced on Oct. 13 for a publication in Science magazine by a team of researchers from The University of Texas at Dallas, The University of Wollongong in Australia, The University of British Columbia in Canada, and Hanyang University in Korea. These muscles, based on carbon nanotubes yarns, accelerate a 2000 times heavier paddle up to 590 revolutions per minute in 1.2 seconds, and then reverse this rotation when the applied voltage is changed. The demonstrated rotation of 250 per millimeter of muscle length is over a thousand times that of previous artificial muscles, which are based on ferroelectrics, shape memory alloys, or conducting organic polymers. The output power per yarn weight is comparable to that for large electric motors, and the weight-normalized performance of these conventional electric motors severely degrades when they are downsized to millimeter scale. … The combination of mechanical simplicity, giant torsional rotations, high rotation rates, and micron-size yarn diameters are attractive for applications, such as microfluidic pumps, valve drives, and mixers. In a fluidic mixer demonstrated by the researchers, a 15 micron diameter yarn rotated a 200 times larger radius and 80 times heavier paddle in flowing liquids at up to one rotation per second. … A EurekAlert release from the University of British Columbia adds: … Using yarns of carbon nanotubes that are enormously strong, tough and highly flexible, the researchers developed artificial muscles that can rotate 250 degrees per millimetre of muscle length. This is more than a thousand times that of available artificial muscles composed of shape memory alloys, conducting organic polymers or ferroelectrics, a class of materials that can hold both positive and negative electric charges, even in the absence of voltage. “What’s amazing is that these barely visible yarns composed of fibres 10,000 times thinner than a human hair can move and rapidly rotate objects two thousand times their own weight,” says UBC Assoc. Prof. John Madden, Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering. Madden says, “While not large enough to drive an arm or power a car, this new generation of artificial muscles – which are simple and inexpensive to make – could be used to make tiny valves, positioners, pumps, stirrers and flagella for use in drug discovery, precision assembly and perhaps even to propel tiny objects inside the bloodstream.” Central to the team’s success are nanotubes that are spun into helical yarns, which means that they have left and right handed versions, which allows the yearn to be controlled by applying an electrochemical charge, and to twist and untwist.…
Posted in Nanotechnology Tags: Bionanotechnology, british, dallas, Nano, NANOTECH, Research, Researchers, rotation, Texas, University Comments OffNose Power: Electricity From Human Respiration
The same piezoelectric effect that ignites your gas grill with the push of a button could one day power sensors in your body via the respiration in your nose. Researchers at the University of Wisconsin–Madison have created a polyvinylidene fluoride ( PVDF ) strip that vibrates when passed by low-speed airflow such as human respiration, generating an electric charge. The researchers engineered the PVDF to generate sufficient piezoelectric energy from respiration to operate small electronic devices. “Basically, we are harvesting mechanical energy from biological systems. The airflow of normal human respiration is typically below about two meters per second,” says Xudong Wang. “We calculated that if we could make this material thin enough, small vibrations could produce a microwatt of electrical energy that could be useful for sensors or other devices implanted in the face.” Researchers are taking advantage of advances in nanotechnology and miniaturized electronics to develop a host of biomedical devices that could monitor blood glucose for diabetics or keep a pacemaker battery charged so that it would not need replacing. What’s needed to run these tiny devices is a miniscule power supply. Waste energy in the form or blood flow, motion, heat, or in this case respiration, offers a consistent source of power. The team used an ion-etching process to carefully thin material while preserving its piezoelectric properties. With improvements, Wang believes the thickness can be controlled down to the submicron level. Because PVDF is biocompatible, he says the development represents a significant advance toward creating a practical micro-scale device for harvesting energy from respiration. Read More Paper Movie (.wmv)
Posted in Nanotechnology Tags: carefully-thin, controlled-down, Development, form-or-blood, from-biological, material-while, miniscule-power, preserving-its, Researchers, such-as-human, thickness Comments OffPrinted Paper Photovoltaic Cells
. Researchers from Chemnitz University of Technology and Julius-Maximilians-University of Würzburg, in Germany, have presented solar panels that are printed on standard paper. The technology, known as 3PV (3PV stands for printed paper photovoltaics) uses conventional printing methods and standard substrates, like those used for magazines, posters or packaging. Special inks with electrical properties form the necessary structures on paper, which ensure that electricity is generated when being exposed to light. The polymer/fullerene solar cells are printed on paper using a combination of gravure and flexographic printing techniques, and the cells are free from expensive electrodes made with indium–tin oxide, silver, or gold. Since conventional printing methods (i.e. gravure, flexo and offset printing) are very cost-efficient, the printed solar panels shall generate much cheaper electricity in comparison to conventional solar cells. Prof. Dr. Arved Hübler from the Institute for Print and Media Technology at Chemnitz University of Technology, who is working together with his research team on the 3PV technology for more than three years now, speaks of a paradigm shift in solar technology. His vision for the future is that common printing houses around the world could produce and market 3PV solar panels. The cells that were printed in Chemnitz achieve an energy conversion efficiency of 1.3 percent. The researchers use a new material approach. In a special printing process, naturally oxidized zinc is applied as base electrode. The transparent counter electrode is printed with PEDOT , a conductive polymer. “The materials are constantly optimised and we are confident that the 3PV parameters can be further improved,” says Tino Zillger, researcher and leader of the project. Even the team of Hübler is a bit surprised that it is already possible to produce very stable 3PV modules with a web printing press in the laboratory. “Our long experience in the field of printed electronics pays well here,” says the head of the chair Print Media Technology. Hübler assumes that all in all paper solar cells could have the edge over the current technological state of the art due to the efficient production and lower material costs. The aim of further research is to increase the efficiency to more than five percent in order to ensure that a 3PV module is economically attractive despite a life time of less than one year. “In nature we find a model for this strategy: even green leaves only have a moderate energy conversion efficiency of four to seven percent and a life time of less than one year. Nevertheless, this approach is obviously successful,” explains Hübler. The vision of being able to contribute to the overall energy supply with the help of paper solar panels is only one field of application. Researchers have already shown that it is also possible to drive small electrical devices with these paper solar cells. This opens up the possibility to supply mobile devices with “paper power” in a simple and self-sustaining way. Intelligent packaging, for instance, could include many additional features, ranging from displays to sensors. Handling of the paper solar cells can be very simple. The paper strips can be connected with the help of commercial snap fasteners. Immediately, an electrical current flows. According to the researchers, the paper modules can be recycled like any other waste paper after use. According to Hübler it is, thus, not only possible to generate renewable energy, but also the solar cell itself is made from renewable resources and is consequently renewable. Read More Paper
Posted in Nanotechnology Tags: applied-as-base, chemnitz, Efficiency, Institute., Laboratory, Media, Paper, possibility, Project, Research, Researchers, Technology Comments OffMechanical force splits molecule that cannot otherwise be split
A major feature of advanced nanotechnology will be precise mechanical control of how molecules and molecular fragments react, thus forming a desired product and eliminating the possible occurrence of unwanted side reactions. Earlier this year we cited an advance in which mechanical constraint of two molecules positioned on a surface produced a reaction that would not have occurred were the molecules free to move in solution. In further development of the basic science on which advanced positional mechanosynthesis will be based, scientists have now demonstrated that mechanical force, in this case pulling caused by ultrasound, can cause unique reactions that cannot be made to occur using non-specific means such as heat and light. From an article by Jon Cartwright in Physics World “ ‘Tug-of-war’ prompts chemical reaction “: It has been known for decades that mechanical force is another way of promoting reactions – a field known as “mechanochemistry”. If you chew a piece of rubber, for example, some of the material’s covalent bonds will break, forming shorter polymers. Chemists have also used mechanical force to select and promote certain reactions, such as opening molecular rings or changing molecular structures. What they have not been able to do is use mechanical force to effect a chemical reaction that could not be driven in any other way. It is this feat that has now been demonstrated by Christopher Bielawski and colleagues at the University of Texas at Austin. Bielawski’s group focused on a ring-shaped functional group known as triazole (C 2 H 3 N 3 ), which is often used in the biological research and materials science. Triazole – specifically the isomer 1,2,3-triazole – is formed during the cycloaddition of an azide (the N 3 – functional group) and an alkyne (hydrocarbons with a carbon–carbon triple bond) in the presence of copper. Once formed, however, the triazole is unaffected by almost all thermal, chemical and light treatments. The researchers begin with triazole and then attach polymer chains to either side of the individual molecules. The sample is then put in solution and ultrasound is applied. This causes tiny bubbles to grow and collapse, pulling on nearby polymer chains. According to the team, this generates a tensile force along the polymer backbones that reaches a maximum in the centres – exactly where the triazole molecules are located. The force distorts the bonds, say the researchers, allowing triazole to break into its constituent azide and alkyne. “The reported reaction [triazole into an azide and alkyne] is one of the very few transformations that is promoted only by mechanical force – the reactivity we describe cannot be achieved using other stimuli, such as heat or light,” says Bielawski. The above research was published in the Sept. 16 issue of Science (“Unclicking the Click: Mechanically Facilitated 1,3-Dipolar Cycloreversions”, abstract ). An accompanying commentary notes “By pushing, or in this case literally pulling, the reactions down different pathways, they explore novel concepts for synthesizing organic molecules.” For practical molecular manufacturing applications, some much more precise method of focusing mechanical force than is possible with ultrasound will be needed. Perhaps methods can be developed using scanning probe microscopes or molecular machine systems.
Posted in Nanotechnology Tags: Case, christine-peterson, molecular manufacturing, Reactions, Researchers, such-as-heat, Texas, texas-at-austin, triazole Comments Off